Grade 7 Social Study Animated Illustration

A.The Position of Africa 1. students as you know Africa is one of the seven continents in our planet .

2. In this Illustration we are going to see the absolute location of Africa .Before that, students do you know what absolute location mean? Absolute location is a location of a place can be identified on a globe or maps by using latitude and longitudes.

4. Students for more understanding about absolute location, let ‘s see the absolute location of Africa. Africa lies between 37o 21’N and 34o52’S and 17o 11’W and 51o21’E So Students this is what we mean by the astronomical or absolute location of Africa.

5. Now let’s see some Fact About Africa 6. The north-south distance of Africa is 7623 km 7.And The East to West Distance is 7260 km 8. Africa has a total area about 30.331.606Km2

9. Africa Has almost a balanced Position around the equator .

The Equator bisects Africa in to Two Equal parts.

10. Africa is the only continent crossed by both tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn.

11. the prime meridian passes through the western part of the continent via Accra (The capital city of Ghana).

12. The four Extreme points of the continents are:

-Ras ben sakka – Tunisia (37o21’N)

-Cape Agulhas – Republic of South Africa (34o52’S)

-Cape Guardafui(Raskafuun)-Somalia(51o 24’E)

-Cape Vert – Senegal (17o11’W)

13. okay students since this is good facts about africa now lets compare the shape and size of Africa with other continents.

14. As you are looking in the map only asia is bigger than Africa. Therefore, Africa is the second largest continent in our world.

15. Africa is as large as a combined land area of U.S.A Europe and china.

16. In general Africa covers about 20.2% of the earth’s land surface.

(1. Asia = 44.810.880 km2 (29.9%)

(2. Africa = 30,331,606 km2 (20.2%)

(3. North America = 24,36,875 km2 (16.3%)

(4. South America = 17,831,606 km2 (11.9%)

(5. Antarctica = 14,002,590 km2 (9.4%)

(6. Europe = 9,935,233 km2 (6.6%)

(7. Australia = 8,289,000 km2 (5.7%) 

Latitudes and parallels

1, Latitudes:- are an angular distances measured north and south of the equator in degrees.

2, to measure latitude, equal distance from equator are marked off by parallels which are imaginary lines.

3, Parallels: - are imaginary lines drawn on globe or maps joining all points with the same latitude in degrees north and south of the equator.

4, since the equator is the origin of latitude it is numbered 0°. The north and South Pole are the most distant points from the equator therefore the North Pole latitude is 90°N and the South Pole latitude is 90°s. 5, Students having some points about latitudes and parallels now let’s see the three types of latitudes and tropics. Which are used as benchmarks for telling the amount of sunlight reaching various parts of the surface of the earth.

6, the first latitude is known as “The low latitudes or tropics” the equator receives more direct sunlight than any place on the earth. Areas around the equator are usually hot all year round. The low latitudes or tropics are found between the tropic of cancer (23 1/2°N) and tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2°S) and these are receive vertical sunrays.

7. The second latitude is known as middle latitudes or temperate regions: they are found between the tropic of cancer (23 1/2°N) and the arctic circle (66 1/2°S) in the north and the tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2°S) and the Antarctic circle (66 1/2°S) in the south.

8. They have moderate temperature and receive less sunlight than the low latitudes. 9. The third type of latitude is the high latitude and the Arctic and Antarctic circles:

Beyond the arctic circle 66 1/2°N and the Antarctic circle 66 1/2°S are known as high latitudes or Polar Regions. These areas receive little heat from the sun and, therefore they are cold throughout the year. 

Longitudes and meridians

1. Longitudes: are angular distance measured to the east and west of the prime meridian in degree.

2. Meridians: are imaginary lines drawn on globes maps joining all point with the same longitudes in degrees. All meridians extend from the North Pole to the South Pole.

3. The prime meridian or o longitude: is ‘’natural ‘’ mid-point like the equator from which longitude can be measured.

Major language families spoken in Africa 1) The language spoken by the people of Africa are classified in to four supper language families.

 They are :-

• Niger-Congo • Afro- Asiatic • Nilo-Saharan

• The khoisan

2) Okay students when we use the four super language families of Africa by the number of speaker; the first is Niger-Congo: it has between 300 and 400 million speakers. The speakers found in western, central eastern and southern Africa.

3) The second supper language family is Afro-asiatic: It has between 200-300 million speakers. The speakers found in northern, central, north eastern and the horn of Africa.

4) The third super language family is Nilo-Saharan; it has found about 30 million speakers. The speakers are found in around the White Nile river area and in some parts of central Africa.

5) The fourth and the last supper language family is the Khoisan: it occupies a few area of southern Africa with smallest number of speakers. It has about 300,000 speakers.

Ancient civilization of Egypt

1. The civilization of ancient Egypt began about 3000 BC in the Nile river valley. During this time most people lived in and around the Nile valley. Settlement: small cities long Nile River

2. Ancient Egypt was a hot country with almost no rain fall. But farmers grew crops most of the year by irrigating their land. They built canals to take water from the Nile to their fields.

3. Ancient Egyptian traders sailed to lands bordering Mediterranean and red seas. 4. Egyptian farmers were also involved in the construction of temples, palaces and tombs. The large tombs built for the pharaohs were called Pyramids.

5. Ancient Egyptian rulers were known as pharaohs.

6. Ancient Egyptians believed in life after death. They preserved the body of the dead. The process of preserving dead body is called Mummification.

7. Ancient Egyptian developed a system of writing called hieroglyphics. It was a pictorial form of writing later on they used papyrus. 

Long distance trade in Ethiopia

1. Trade is an economic activity of buying and selling goods

2. Long distance trade: involved in different markets, peoples, regions and goods.

3. Long distance trade in Ethiopia was conducted by Muslim merchants. 4. The leading merchants of the time were known as Jabarti and Afkala.

The Jabarti were Muslim merchants in northern Ethiopia. 5. The Afkala were orormo Muslim merchants in southwestern Ethiopia. 6. Long distance trade was mainly conducted by caravan merchants who travelled for and wide distance in large groups. The leader of the caravan merchants was called Negadras. 7. The major export items of trade were ivory, gold, skins, incense and coffee. The major area of supply was southwestern Ethiopia. 8. The main import items include copper, spice, clothes, silver and firearms.

9. The major markets were located along the trade routes running from southwestern to northern Ethiopia.

Some of the markets include Bonga in Kaffa, Hirmata in Jimma, Assendabo in Wollega, Basso in Gojam and Adwa in Tigrai. Massawa was the end of the trade routes in this part of Ethiopia. 10. Markets located along the east-west trade route include Sodo in Gurage, Ankober and AliyuAmba in northern Shewa, Dire Dawa and Harar in Hararge. The parts of Zeila and Berbera were the end points.

11. In the 19th century, one of the widely used medium of exchange was salt bar called amole. The other important medium of exchange was called Maria Theresa, a silver coin made in Austria named after its queen. 12. In General long distance served as a major means of economic relations among different peoples of Ethiopia. It also becomes major source of income to rulers. Above all it created a strong attachment among the peoples of Ethiopian and united them together. 

Transportation in Africa Roads:

1) Road transport has become more important in Africa since 1950’s.

2) Road development and distribution in Africa are unequal southern has the most development and highest density of roads in Africa.

3) Other area with relatively better developed networks including the Maghreb (North Africa) and West African coast.

4) In order to achieve socio-economic and political integration among Africa countries, there is a great need to improve the linking of roads among countries of Africa. For this the two proposed road networks by colonial powers would be special significance. These Trans African high ways are “THE GREAT NORTH ROAD” from Cairo to Cape Town and the one that extends from Lagos to Mombasa.

Railways:

1) Today Africa has less length of railways lines because Africa still underdeveloped.

2) Africa existing railways network is also unequally distributed among the various regions.

3) The region with large concentration of railways is southern Africa.

4) Particularly. The republic of South Africa is the only country which has attained the development of railways network compared to those in Europe and North America.

5) So students in general we have seen above, that the road and railways transport in Africa is still under developed. The factors are so many. One major problem that we can mention is war and disturbance.

6) When there is war and civil disturbance, the already built transport infrastructures will be destroyed. Furthermore, future development will be retarded. Africa had been still victim of such situations. 

Pattern of population distribution In Africa 1. Africa has uneven population distribution.

2. Climate is the single biggest physical factor that has strong influence on the pattern of population distribution in Africa. 3. Generally, areas with less than 380 mm of rainfall per year can support few crops. Therefore, the great expanse of the deserts and semi-deserts of the Sahara, Kalahari, Somalia, central and southern Kenya are areas of scanty rainfall. Consequently, they have low population distribution.

4. So those areas have extremely low population because the areas experience hottest and driest climate.

5. The shores of Lake Victoria, the Nile Delta, the Maghreb, the highlands of Ethiopia and the coast of West Africa have high population concentration. 5.1 Shores of Lake Victoria

5.2 The Nile Delta.

5.3 The Maghreb

5.4 The highlands of Ethiopia.

5.5 The Coast of West Africa.

6. Students this is happened due to very comfortable climate in those areas. So in general I hope you have understood how climate is a strong factor for the pattern of population distribution In Africa 

Fishing in the rift valley of Ethiopia

1. The Ethiopian rift valley extends in between north western and south eastern highlands. 2. The valley floor consists of several lakes as Chamo, Abaya, Hawassa, Shalla, Abijata, Langa no and Ziway. 3. In the rift valley lakes, there are about 25 fish species. it accounts for about 50 percent of the total fish production in Ethiopia.

4. Tilapia, Nile perch and cat fish are commercially popular.

5. Ethiopia has not yet much benefited from its fish resources. These is due to: -traditional technique of fishing 6. - Low local demand for fish products

- Lack of skilled human power

- Absence of adequate statistical data about the fishery sector of the country, etc…

The site situation and growth of the urban settlement.

1. Urban settlement has two components .These components are site and situation. Site refers to the local setting of a city, while the situation refers to the regional setting.as an example of site and situation think of Addis Ababa.

Most people in Ethiopia prefer Addis Ababa for different situation. This is because of the factor favouring the site of Addis Ababa these include:,

 Enjoyed a temperate climate with adequate rainfall.

 Presence of extensive flat land for expansion and development.

 Capacity to support large urban population.

 Adequacy of water supplies for growing population.

 Effectiveness for government administration etc.

2. At present Addis Ababa is highly centralized administrative and industrial capital of Ethiopia and it is 4th largest city in Africa. 

Summary for unit 1

1. Africa a compact shape both north south and east west dimension of Africa are almost equal

2. Africa is crossed by the tropic of cancer Capricorn and the equator 3. It is bordered by the Atlantic ocean Mediterranean sea Indian ocean and the red sea

4. On the map of the world or globe, there are imaginary lines running east-west and north –south directions. 5. The lines drawn East-west are called Parallels 6. The lines drawn North-south are called meridians 7. There are four a major groups of language inn Africa. they are • Niger Congo • Afro Asiatic • Nile –Saharan

• Khoisan 8. Long distance trade in Ethiopia was conducted by the caravan merchants. the major markets were located along the trade routes running from south western to northern Ethiopian and from south west to eastern Ethiopia War and civil disturbances destroy the already built infrastructures. Furthermore, it retards future development programs. 

 Glossary

Absolute Location: is the location that can be shown on globes or maps by using astronomical grid references. Caravan: group of persons making journey together for safety usually across desert area. Craftsman: skilled workman who practices a craft Excavate: to dig in the ground to look for old buildings or objects that have been buried for a long time.

High latitudes: the area beyond the Arctic circle in the north and Antarctic in the south (66 1/20 N or S - 900 N or S)

Incense: smoke of substance producing a sweet smell when burning.

Latitudes: are angular distances measured to the north and south of the equator in degrees.

Low Latitudes: this is the belt between the tropic of cancer (23 1/20 N) and the tropic of Capricorn (23 1/20 S).

Meridians: are imaginary lines which connect the north pole and the south pole.

Middle Latitudes: sometimes know as the temperate regions. They are found between the topic of cancer (23 1/20 N) and the Arctic circle (66 1/20 N) in the northern hemisphere and the tropic of Capricorn (23 1/20 S) and the Antarctic circle (66 1/20 S) in the southern hemisphere.

Mummification: is preserving a corpse.

Spices: sorts of substance used to flavor food

Tomb: place to put a dead body. 

Using a map A map a representation of part of the earth on a reduced scale. A cartographer is a person who is well trained to make map. There for, a Cartographer is a map maker. A scale is the ratio a given distance on a map to the corresponding distance on the ground. Scale decides the amount of detail which can be shown. Uses of a map Ancient use: primitive societies used to draw simple maps in sand soil to show Location of water hole. An excellent hunting ground and the way how get there.

Modern use: modern maps are used to show the location, distance, area and direction of a place. Marginal information : all the terms including on the appropriate corner of the margin Of the map are generally termed as marginal information. In order to make proper Interpretation possible, all maps must have the following marginal information Title or heading Scale Compass Key to symbols and colors Date of publication. Title or Heading : every map is drawn on purpose. Therefore, every map has a name. The name is its title or heading. Scale : a scale is the ratio of a given distance on a map to the corresponding distance On the ground. Scale can be expressed in different ways namely! Scale statement (1cm to 1km) Representative fraction ( 1:100 or 1/100 ) Graphic scale Compass direction : one of the methods of showing direction on a map is by compass direction. It is shown with four coordinal points. Key to symbol and colors : you can read a map effectively if you understand the meaning given to symbols and colors used on the map under key or legend. Date of publication : Date of publication indicated on the margin of the map to indicate that time reference is important to connect the map to the past and the future. 

Layers of the earth 1. The earth is made up of three layers. These are the crust, mantle and core.

2. Crust:- is the outer most layer of the earth with two sections namely: oceanic crust and continental crust. 3. The oceanic crust, which is sometimes known as sima is found under the oceans. It has an average thickness of 6 to 10kms. 4. The continental crust, which is sometimes called sail approximately, corresponds to the continents. Its thickness can be up to 65kms.

5. The mantle: - is the second layer of the earth with an average depth of 2900kms and a temperature that may reach 500oc. it usually found in a molten state.

6. The final layer of the earth is called the core.

It’s the center of the earth having two sections namely: the outer and the inner core.

7. The outer core is kept in a semi-molten state. While the inner core is solid in its nature. The temperature at the center of the earth, at about 6371oc 

Types of formation of rocks 1. students you have learnt about the different layer of the earth and their main components in general and the crust in particular in the first lesson .now you will learn about the different types of rock and their formation .Then ,What is a rock?

2. Rocks are made up of minerals from such elements as oxygen, sulfur, carbon, calcium, aluminum etc. 3. Rocks are classified in to three according to their origin and age .they are:

• Igneous rocks;

• Sedimentary rock;

• Metamorphic rock;

4. Igneous rocks

The term igneous derived from Latin word “ignis” meaning “fire”. Because of the great pressure and heat all material found inside the earth is in liquid or molten state. This material Is known as magma.

5. The magma is sometimes forced to come out to the surface.

(Show the movement that clearly describes the out flow of magma to the surface of the earth)

6. When the magma comes out on the surface it will become lava. 7. When lava over flows on the Surface it gets cool and becomes hard. This is because of the cool temperature on the surface .this results the formation of the different type of ingenious rocks.

8. Igneous rocks are divided in to two groups on the basis of their texture which has been determined by the speed of cooling.

a) Intrusive rocks (plutonic rocks) are rocks which have cooled and solidified with in the interior of the earth.

9. Examples: Granite and gabbro.

b) Extrusive rocks (Volcanic rock) are rocks Which have cooled and solidified on the surface of the earth.

10. Example: basalt and obsidian Sedimentary Rocks

1. These are rocks derived from existing rocks by the processes of weathering and erosion.

2. Sedimentary rocks would be formed as the igneous rock surfaces were fragmented and the rock particles carried to lower ground nearby the transporting agents of wind, ice, or rivers. 3. The deposited particles will make layers until the deposited material become consolidated by pressure and cemented rocks, therefore, show a layered arrangement or stratification. 4. In some areas plant and animal remains provide the basis of rock, which include coal and shell. Metamorphic rocks

1. Metamorphic rocks are changed rocks. They can be formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks.

2. Metamorphism is the transportation of pre-existing rocks i.e., igneous and sedimentary rocks.

3. The major agents of change are heat and pressure.

4. The following are examples of metamorphic rocks:

• Marble

• Slate

• Genesis

• Quartz

• Graphite

Economic use of rocks and minerals

5. Igneous rocks: it has an associated mineral such as basalt, granite and sands which are useful for building and construction.

6. Sedimentary rocks: it has associated minerals such as mineral fuels (coal, natural gas, petroleum, Salt, Gypsum etc. which are useful for energy sources and writing materials.

7. Metamorphic rocks: it has associated minerals such as Gold, Nickel, Diamond, Copper, Iron etc. which are useful for decorative, jewellery materials, electrical wire making etc. 

Unit 3

Distribution of natural vegetation and wild animals

1. Natural vegetation refers to all plants that have grown in a given area without any human efforts.

2. Africa has five different types of natural vegetations namely:

• Equatorial rain forest

• Savannah

• Desert and semi-desert

• Mediterranean and

• Tropical highland vegetations

3. Equatorial rain forest: the vegetation is also known as tropical rainforest. In Africa the rain forest is distributed in central and western Africa and even in Madagascar. 4. The largest continuous rain forest area is found in the Congo basin.

5. This forest, in Africa, occurs mostly in the lowlands whose elevation is below 500 m.

6. These areas have true equatorial climate with high annual precipitation ranging between 1500 mm and 2500 mm and consistently warm temperature.

7. Structurally the rainforest is complete and multilayered with tallest trees reaching up to 50 meters in height. 8. The equatorial rain forest consists of hardwood trees such as Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Ironwood etc.) (1. Mahogany)

(2. Ebony)

(3. Rosewood)

(4. Ironwood)

9. Savannah: savannah vegetation in Africa covers extensive areas between the equatorial rain forest and the desert areas north and south of the equator.

10. Savannah lands mostly encircle the equatorial rain forests.

11. This is the most widespread type of natural vegetation in Africa. It grows in the tropical climate regions where there is a marked dry season.

12. The savannah vegetation consists of different types of grasslands with scattered tress and treeless grasslands. Desert and semi-desert vegetation

1. This vegetation belt coincides the Sahara, Sahel, Karroo-Namib and Kalahari highland regions.

2. These regions are characterized by unreliable rainfall, low humidity and extremely high temperatures.

3. The most common plants in these regions are Xerophytes. 4. Xerophytes are plants having the ability to arrange their life cycle to suit drought conditions and high rate of evaporation.

Mediterranean Vegetation

1. This type of natural vegetation is found in the north and south extremes of the continent of Africa. 2. The vegetation grows in areas with warm dry summer alternating with a cool rainy winter.

3. The very common type of plants in these regions are called Maqui’s

4. Maqui’s: they are low bushes, which have hard Tropical highland vegetation 1. Tropical highland vegetation is also known as Afromontane (Afro alpine) vegetation.

2. This type of vegetation grows on the African tropical mountains, especially in the Ethiopian and East African highlands.

3. The vegetation contains highland forests and grasslands which can grow well in high mountain up to 3000 m.

Wild Animals 1. Wild animals refer to big mammals tamed or untamed.

2. Africa is very rich in all kinds of wild animals 3. Generally, Africa is rich in wild life because of the following reasons.

• The tropical rain forest region hosts the largest number of wild animals. These animals include tree-dwellers (arboreal) like monkeys, apes, baboons, gorillas and birds.

• There are also other large animals that in habit the water bodies, such as hippopotamus, crocodiles, etc. • Savannah grasslands of Africa are also the natural habitat of a variety of wild animals both (herbivores and carnivores). Most of them are herbivores which include antelopes, giraffes, buffaloes, zebra, elephants etc. The most common carnivorous animals are lion, leopard and hyena.

o Herbivores animals are grass or plant eaters.

o Carnivores animals are that feed on flash or meat.

o Omnivore animals are group of wild animals that eat both grass and meat, such as apes and monkeys.

4. African desert and semi-desert areas sustain burrowing animals. These includes: wild ass, fox, reptiles (snakes, lizards and tortoise.).

5. Major rivers, lakes and swamp lands of Africa are the habitat of diverse species of aquatic wild life such as fish, crocodiles, hippopotamus and etc.

Major factors that affect natural vegetation

1. Students in the earlier discussion we have seen the existence of different natural vegetations in Africa. However this natural vegetation is being disturbed due to different human and natural factors. So the factors will be listed as follows:

2. Deforestation: it refers to the temporary or permanent clearance of forests for agriculture or some other land use.

3. The main causes of deforestation are:

 Permanent agriculture

 Shifting cultivation, particularly in tropical areas.

 Fuel wood cutting and collection, mostly in the developing countries as a means of income source.

 Timber production 4. Impeded forest regeneration: it refers deforestation may be prolonged by subsequent Burning and live stock grazing that impade forest regeneration.  Frequent fires, combined with intensive animal browsing of trees and shrubs, have major impacts on vegetation.

5. Forest degradation : it is a temporal or permanent reduction (loss) in the density or structure of forest vegetation or composition of its species. 

Major factors that affect wild animals

1. Today the number and variety of wild life population have declined at an alarming rate in many parts of the world because of major in iron-metal crisis. 2. Some species of wild animals have already become extinct still some other wild animals are facing a great danger of extinction and this have been identified as endangered or threated animals (like walia ibex and mountain Nyala in Ethiopia.)

 Extinct wild animals: refers to a wild animal that no longer exists anywhere on the surface of the earth.

 Endangered or threatened wild animal : is a wild animal which is on the verge of extinction. 3. In general the major factors that affect wild animals are:

 Deforestation  Illegal hunting  Overgrazing

 Burning for forests

 Drought and famines

Water ,soil and air

The importance of water for life 1. Water is very important for life .almost 70 % of the earths surface is covered with water.

2. Water is abundant but distributed resource .there are different source of water .these includes ground water ,surface water ,frozen water and water vapor .

3. The African Region has an important part of the world in terms of land and water :20.2% of the world’s land area , and 9% of the worlds actual water ,with only 13% of the worlds population.

4. the following data shows the percentage rate of actual fresh water availability in the different sub region of Africa .

5. according to the data ,in fresh water availability central Africa stands first ,followed by gulf of guinea,indian ocean Islands , southern African eastern African respectively .

6. so students as we all know it water is useful for : 1. Domestic use : drinking ,cooking ,washing and cleaning . 2. Industrial use: as raw material cleaning and cooling . 3. Agricultural use: for crop production 4. energy source : for hydroelectric power generation . 5. navigation processes : for transportation etc…

Causes of drinking water problems 6. water has one major problem .this is the problem of pollution . Water pollution : refers to any undesirable change in the quality of the water .

7. when water is polluted it is unfit for drinking ,bathing and washing . it is also harmful and can cause many diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

8. the major cause for water pollution are : -Swage wastes: includes human excreta ,paper ,cloth,soapand other detergents, all starts of garbage and trash.

Agricultural pollutants :include chemicals such as fertilizers, herbicides ,insecticides and animal wastes.

9. so students since those are reasons for water pollution every individual has a responsible to over come water pollution. 

Threats to soil 1 . Erosion and land degradation are serious problem s to soil .the cause of soil erosion can be grouped basically into two : Natural and human factor . Natural factors a. Erosion by running : water is dominant and common in many ways parts of the world .it can cause the following soil erosion :

Shunt erosion After large areas and it occurs when rainfall in a gentle slope which is bare of vegetation .this results the removal of uniform depth of soil Gully erosion occurs when heavy rain fall rushes dawn a step slope ,cutting deep groove in to the land .finally after cutting the land it will give “bad lands” b.wind erosion: this occurs when the wind removes the fine particles of the soil and other materials in desert regions. Human factor : it includes -deforestation -overrating and -bad farming particles are threats to soil . 

The cause of urban air pollution 1. Ash from volcanos ,marsh gases ,smoke from wild fires and sand blown dust are natural source of air pollution 2. how ever more than naturally occurring pollutant substances that peoples charges in to the air are the major air pollutants . They are : -burning fossil fuels (coal, gas and oil) -Industrial processes other than fuel burning -burning solid wastes -forest and agricultural fires 

Intervention measures to conserve natural resources

Conservation of natural vegetation 1. Every citizen has a responsibility to conserve natural vegetations properly. Some of conservation methods are:

• Reforestation: planning trees wherever they are cut down.

• Afforestation: new forests must be planted where none existed before. • Proper management of the existing forests.

• Using alternative energy sources (like solar and wind power)

• Agro-forestry: in which trees, field crops and live stock rising are integrated together in adjacent locations.

• Raising public awareness: on the use and management forest resources.

Water conservation methods

The following are some of the methods • Effective treatment of municipal and industrial waste.

• Recycling wastes

• Use of chemicals including the use of chlorine, etc.

Air conservation methods

• There are a number of ways of preventing air pollution, some of them include:

• Government laws: air pollution can be controlled by laws.

• Filter systems: can be installed in chimneys to remove solid pollutants.

• Altering exhaust systems: vehicles can reduce pollution from their smokes.

• Use of mass transportation: reduce both fuel consumption and carbon monoxide production.

Soil conservation methods The following are some of the methods in the conservation of soil.

• Afforestation: provides a long term solution, once the trees have grown their leaves intercept rain fall and their help to bind the soil together and reduce surface runs off.

• Using of cover crop reduce rain splash and surface run off.

• Rotation of crops: improves soil fertility.

• Contour ploughing; prevents excessive erosion.

• Terracing: helps to show down run off.

• Check dams: are small dams to trap silt washed from hills.

• Shelter belts: are trees planted at the edge of farm lands to protect the soil from wind erosion. The use of renewable resources in place of non-renewable resources.

1. Using of renewable resources is the other is a good alternative method for conserving natural resources.

2. Renewable resources are resources that can replace themselves, while non-renewable resources are non-replaceable resources. Sometimes they are known as finite natural resources.

• Renewable resources include water, air, vegetation, animal, soil etc.

• Non-renewable resources are found as a form of minerals these include gold, platinum, petroleum, cooper etc.

• Therefore if we are intending to conserve natural resources and non-renewable resources.

• For example, instead of using fuel minerals as a source of energy or power it is possible to use solar thermal or wind energy.

Summary

• Natural vegetation refers to plants that have grown in a given area without human efforts.

• There are five different types of natural vegetation, namely: equatorial rain forest, savannah, desert and semi-desert, Mediterranean and tropical high land vegetation.

• Africa is very rich in all kinds of wild animals.

• The major factors that affect wild animals are deforestation, illegal hunting, overgrazing, burning, drought and famine.

 Deforestation

 Illegal hunting

 Overgrazing

 Burning of forest

 Drought and famine

• Water has one major problem. This is the problem of pollution.

• The major causes for water pollution are sewage waste, industrial and agricultural pollutants.

• Erosion and land degradation are serious problems to solve.

• The causes for soil erosion can be grouped in to two. i.e natural factors and human made factors.

• Human factors are like deforestation and overgrazing.

• Natural and human factors are also reason for air pollution. Substances that people discharge into air have high percentage of air pollution.

• Every citizen is expected to use the available forest resources properly and wisely. The risk of deforestation can be minimized through: reforestation, afforestation, proper management of existing forests, using alternative energy sources and raising the public awareness.  Reforestation

 Afforestation

 Using solar panel

• The following are some of the methods in the conserving of water: effective treatment of municipal and industrial waste, recycling wastes and use of chemicals.

• There are number of ways of preventing air pollution, some of them include: government laws, filter system, alternating exhaust system and use of mass transportation.

• Some of soil conservation methods are contour ploughing, terracing, building, check dams, planting shelter belts etc.

• Resources are two kinds renewable and nonrenewable.

Glossary

Afforestation is the process of planting trees on an area where there had not been any tree before.

Agroforestry:- the growing of crops, the planting of trees and the raising of livestock under taken in the same location at the same time.

Conservation is the proper and wise use of the available natural resource.

Deforestation is the process of removing trees from n area or country.

Endemic animals are wild animals that are limited to certain area or country.

Fossil fuels are such elements like coal, petroleum and gas.

Natural resources are valuable substances such as woods, minerals, etc. that exist in a counrtry’s land and sea.

Natural vegetation is that part of earth’s plant cover which is not cultivated by human beings.

Pollution is the process of damaging the air, water or soil with chemicals or other substances.

Sewage waste is liquid wastes that are carried away from buildings through passages and pipes.

1. The African countries south of the Sahara are more heavily affected by HIV and AIDS than any other region of the world. 2. An estimated 22.4 million people are affected with HIV/AIDS in region.

3. Altogether, there are now 16 countries in which more than one tenth of the adult population aged 15-49 is infected with HIV.

i. Southern Africa: In six countries of the southern part of Africa, at least one adult in five is affected with the virus. These countries are Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. • In general in this region the adult HIV prevalence as a percentage of population is 15%.

ii. West Africa: has been less affected by HIV and ADIS. But the prevalence rates in some countries are rising up. These countries are: Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.

iii. East Africa: Infection rate in east Africa was once the highest on the continent. The adult HIV prevalence in east Africa especially in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania exceed 5%. The prevalence rate among adult in Ethiopia has reached 2.1%.

In general, rates of new HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa have increased from time to time.

• The infections rates in young African women are far higher than those in young men. This is because girls are more easily infected during sexual inter course. With an infected partner than boys.

• HIV has caused immense human suffering in the continent. The most obvious effect of this crisis has been illness death.

Impact of HIV/AIDS

1. The impact on life expectancy

• In many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS is shortening the life of the people. Average life expectancy in sub-Saharan Africa is now 47 years, it could have been 62 without AIDS.

2. The impact on households

The presences of AIDS cause the household to dissolve. When parents die, children are sent to relatives for care and upbringing.

3. The impact on health sector

AIDS epidemic is adding additional pressure on the health sector. As the epidemic develops, the demand for care for those affected with HIV rises.

4. The impact on children

As parents and family members become ill, children take on more responsibility to earn an income, produce food, and care for family members

5. The impact on education sector

• A decline in school enrolment is one of the most visible effects of the epidemic.

• Children who have lost their parents due to AIDS are unable to afford school fees and other expenses.

• It has also an effect on teacher. When teacher falls ill, the class may be taken by another teacher or may be combined with another class.

6. The impact on productivity and economy

The people affected with HIV and AIDS in Africa are between the ages 15-49 in the prime of their working lives. By this the epidemic affects the economy by reducing the labor supply through increased mortality and illness. Amongst those who are able to work, productivity will decline as a result of HIV related illness. 

Consequences of rapid population Growth

1. Rapid population growth contributes for high demand of basic needs of individuals. In over populated areas of the world, these are many people who cannot meet these needs , un met needs may lead to social unrest and conflicts among and between nations • In general rapid population growth will have effects on the following.

A. Effects on food supply

One of the most basic needs threatened by over population is food. Scientist estimated that more than 10 million people die each year because they do not have a good diet.

B. Effect on natural resources supply

If people today use up the resources, it will make problems for the future certain natural resources like petroleum are in limited supply.

C. Effect on education In many urban centers schools have over board class rooms. To remove this situation government should invest a large sum of money on educational infrastructures. This investment is not affordable for the countries of Africa . Therefore, African countries should take measures to balance their population size with their population size with their resources

D. Effects on natural environment Rapid population growth causes serious environmental degradation in the country. Some of them included:-

I. Deforestation: the high population pressure has led to increasing migration to marginal land. This in turn has increased deforestation and over grazing

II. Soil erosion: high population pressure has led to expansion of land under cultivation and overuse of cultivated land. This resulted in increased soil erosion and land degradation.

E. Effect on employment :

Rapid population growth does not match with job opportunities. This In turn makes the income of individuals very low.

- So students the final outcome of rapid population growth will be absolute poverty

- Absolute poverty: is the lack of sufficient income in cash or in kind for basic needs. such as food clothing and shelter 

Fight child rights violations

Laws supporting the rights of the child

- Child right conventions protect children from cruelty, sexual offences, neglect or exploitation and assure them of some education. Most countries have laws that protect the interests of children.

- The United Nations convention on the rights of the child was adopted on November 20, 1989.

- The convention sets out these rights in 54 articles. They includes the right of children to express their views the right to freedom of thought , the right to protection from abuse and the right to a good standard of living.

- The four important principles of the convention are :-

 Non – discrimination

 Devotion to the best interests of child

 The right to life , survival and development and

 Respect for the views of the child

- The transitional government of Ethiopia has endorsed and ratified the convention on the right of the child on December 9, 1991

- This convention helps to avoid child abuse and child labor

- Child abuse:- is a mistreated of a child by apparent or another adult(show an image for child abusment )

- Child labor: - is the employment of children as wage earner s. - Today countries are passing laws to correct child abuse and child labor

- The governments of most developing countries have law’s prohibiting the employment of children. however they lack the money to an enforce these laws 

Examples of the lack of good governance in Africa

- Good governance is a type of governance where sovereign power is in the hands of the people. - In this kind of democratic government, authorities would respect the people. The power of such democratic government is limited by low. A democratic government with limited power is accountable and transparent to the people. - Accountability: means that the representatives of the people should make decisions that reflect the interests of the people. - Transparency: refer to the idea that the actions and decisions of the government and its officials should be already known to the people.

- On the other hand if there is no limitation up on the power the government that government is unlimited government.

- Ethiopia has been ruled for a long period of time by governments with unlimited power, from 1930’s-1970, Ethiopia had been ruled by absolute monarchy.

- Absolute monarchy:- is a form of government where the power of king is not limited by low. In absolute monarchy the king is:

- Supreme law maker

- Chief administrator

- Supreme law giver

- The commander-in-chief of the national army.

- This tells you that power is concentrated in one man the king. In this kind of government human and democratic rights are not recognized and respected.

- From the mid 1970’s to the early 1990’s, Ethiopia had also been ruled by the military government called the Derg.

- The power of Derg government was unlimited. There was no division of power. Power was concentrated in the hand of few political leaders.

- Under the Derg government, Ethiopia was a totalitarian state. Under totalitarianism, there was total subordination of all possible oppositions. This was against the basic rights and freedoms of citizens. Citizens lacked good governance, and also peaceful and stable life.

- In addition absence of rule of law or lack of good governance puts the rights and freedom of citizens in danger and it results in the prevalence of corruption and civil war. A. Corruption: is the misuse of public power for private gain. It is a dishonest behavior. - There are many forms of corruption. But the following are the most common forms of corruption.

I. Seeking or receiving bribe: - In a corrupt society, government officials at all levels may seek and receive bribe form individuals group or business organizations who want to have cases to be seen or decided.

II. Delaying decisions, cases or actions

- This is another form of corruption done when officials delay peoples interest’s or totally ignore popular interests and demand by lengthening bureaucratic process.

III. Favoritism: this is the practice of denying people of fair and equal opportunities and advantages. This is done when officials give unfair advantage to individuals who belong to their family, kinship, clan, religion or locality, so that official is doing corruption.

B. Civil war: The lack of good governance will brought about instability and civil war. This will damage infrastructure and intensifies underdevelopment. - In addition, it will result population displacement and increases the mortality rate. 

Programs for partnership

Major regional organizations

1. COMESA: common market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) began in December 1994.it was formed to replace the former preferential trade’s area (PTA).

 COMESA was established “as an organization of free independent sovereign states who have agreed to cooperate in developing their natural and human resource for the god of all their people.(show logo of COMESA)

 However, its main focus is on the formation of a large economic and trading unit.

 The headquarter is in Zambia, Lusaka. (Show Lusaka on the map). 2. ECOWAS : the economic community of West Africa states (ECOWAS) is regional group of fifteen West Africa countries.

 It was founded on May 28, 1975, with the signing of the treaty of Lagos. It is to promote economic integration.

3. SADC: the southern Africa development community (SADC), is an inter-government organization.

 It headquarter is in Gaborone, Botswana.

 Its goal to form socio-economic corporation and integration. Its aim is also to form political and security cooperation among fifteen southern African states.

 Nile Basin Initiative

 The Nile basin initiative (NBI) is a partnership among the Nile riparian (of a river) states.

 It was formally launched in February 1999 by the water minister of ten countries that share the river. These are Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, and Democracy republic of Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda and Eritrea.

 The Nile River, share socio-economic benefits and promote regional peace and security. 

 The founding of the OAU

The organization of African unity was founded on 25 May 1963. In Addis Ababa.

The charter of the organization was signed by 31 independent African states. New independent states later joined the organization. The aims/goals of OAU - To promote the unity and solidarity of the African states

- To achieve a better life for the people of Africa

- To defend their sovereignty, and eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa

- To promote international cooperation with due regard to the charter of united nations and the universal declaration of human rights.

The principal organs of OAU

- The assembly of the heads of states and government

This was the highest organ and it met, at least once a year.

- The council of ministers: it consisted of the foreign mistier of member states. It met twice a year and prepared agendas for the annual meeting of the heads of states.

- The general secretariat: located in Addis Ababa and follow up and implements the decision made by the general assembly.

- The OAU also had various commissions set up to deal with social economic, educational, health and nutritional problems of Africa. Successes of the OAU

- Through its committee for liberation, the OAU assisted the libration movement of non independent nations. - At the United Nations African starts often took a united stand on several issues.

- It had attempted to make peace in several conflicts; for example, between Somalia and Ethiopia, morocco and Nigeria and tin the struggle against apartheid in the south Africa, it gained some success.

Failure of the OAU - The OAU had failed to achieve some of its goal like becoming self-sufficient in food production, establishing an African monetary fund, etc.

- The OAU was unable to end civil war in Ethiopia (1970s- 1990ss) Chad, Nigeria, Angola, and Sudan.

- The OAU had also failed to solve the refugee problems. The problems had continued to grow due to civil wars and other political reason. Factor responsible for failures of the OAU include

- Difference of opinion among states

- Differences of attitude towards the ex-colonial power and the structure of the OAU - Differences in languages; English , French, Portuguese, Spanish and Arabic are the major languages of the continent

- Many states are members of other non-African organization. In north Africa many states belong to the Arab league.

- Independence was followed by ethnic and border conflicts one party rule military coup d’etates and foreign interference in Africa. The overall effects of these were political instability and economic and social backwardness 

African union (AU)

 To overcome the entire problems facade by OAU and to speed up African political and economic integration, the African union (AU) was established in 2002.

 In September 1999, an extra ordinary OAU summit was called and held in site, Libya by invention from the former of Libyan leader Muammar Gadaffi.

 This meeting was intended to improve the OAU charter in order to increase its efficiency and effectiveness.

 Thus, on 5 September 1999, the sirte declaration called for the establishment of the African union (AU) the declaration was followed by the highest meetings at Lome, Togo, in 2000 and Lusaka, Zambia in 2001.

 The African union officially started on 9 July 2002, in Durban, South Africa.

 The first president was South Africa leader Thabo Mbeki.

 This was the first session of the assembly different of African union and the last session of the OAU.

 The African union is not basically different from the OAU. It is a naturally development of the OAU into a higher level of integration.

 It had four solid bases:

 The establishment of an Africa- parliament,

 The peace and Security Council.

 Africa court of justice and human right.

 The Africa monetary fund and the African instrument bank.

 The office of the general secretariat is located in Addis Ababa.

 The vision of the African union is to see an integration, prosperous and peace full Africa driven by its own citizens.

 (Show the current building of Au.) 

 Summary - Hiv/Aids is a global threat .its distribution and impact is higher in Africa especially in sub-Saharan Africa , than any where else - HIV/AIDS has social economic demographic and political impacts.

- The rapid population growth has results in greater food shortage , in a growing demand for education , low access to modern health services and serious environmental degradation such as deforestation and soil erosion.

- The united nation convention on the right of child was adopted to the right of children to express their views, the right to freedom of thought ,the right to protection from abuse and the right to good standard of living .

- Lack of good governance : is when the sovereign power is in the hands of the dictator .in this kind of government there would be no accountability and transparency.

- The major African regional organizations include COMESA , ECOWAS,SADC, and NBI. each of these regional organizations has its own individual aims and purpose . Glossary Abuse :make a bad or wrong use of something .

Convention :Agreement b/n states ,rulers ….etc .

Cooperation : working or acting together for a common purpose .

Council: group of persons appointed elected or chosen to give advice ,make rulers and carry out.

Degradation : falling to lower position .

Discrimination : making a difference b/n person.

Epidemic (disease): wide spread among many peoples in the same place for a time.

Favoritism: practice of favoring persons un equally .

Headquarters : places from which operations are controlled .

Impact : sticking with force.

Integration : combining in to a whole Mortality : states of being mortal (which most die ).

Resources : wealth supplies of goals ,row materials etc…